Sport Management Studies

Multilevel Factors Affecting the Social Inclusion of Women in Sports

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

Mahshid Gholi poor 1
Farzad GHAFOURI 2
Javad Shahlaei bagheri 2
gholamreza shabani bahar 3
Holger Preuss 4

1 1- Ph.D. Candidate in Sport Management, faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

2 Associate Professor in Sport Management, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

3 Professor in Sport Management, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

4 5- Professor in Sport Economics, Sport Sociology and Sport History, Johannes Gutenberg‐University, Mainz, Germany

https://doi.org/10.22089/smrj.2024.14499.3842
Abstract
Background and Purpose
The low participation rates of the elderly in physical activity indicate that their needs and desires are often unmet, partly due to ageism, which leads to their exclusion from such activities (1,2). Addressing social exclusion through the promotion of social inclusion is a global challenge faced by policymakers, practitioners, and communities (3). Marivoet (2014) defines social inclusion in sports as the existence of genuine equal opportunities for all individuals-including the elderly, women, and people with disabilities-to access sports (4). Participation in physical activity can mitigate the physiological and psychological effects of aging, enhance life expectancy, and improve quality of life (5). However, in Iran, structural, individual, and interpersonal barriers prevent the elderly from engaging in physical activity (6). These challenges, compounded by aging stereotypes, have contributed to the marginalization of older adults from sports and physical activity spaces. This study aims to identify the multilevel factors influencing the social inclusion of the elderly in physical activity.
 
Materials and Methods
This multimethod qualitative research employed participant observation, interviews, and secondary document analysis to explore determinants of social inclusion among the elderly in physical activity. To enhance reliability, a three-step process was implemented to limit researcher bias and enable triangulation. The research team engaged in ongoing discussions throughout data collection to improve validity. The study population included experts in elderly sports, sports sociologists, sports psychologists, and trainers experienced in elderly physical activity, as well as elderly individuals who engage in sports at least once weekly. Snowball sampling was used to select participants, resulting in nine expert interviews and seventeen elderly participant interviews. Semi-structured interviews averaged 60 minutes each. Data were analyzed line-by-line using Strauss and Corbin’s (1998) coding procedures, organizing data into initial, first-order, and higher-order themes. Validity was ensured through peer review and expert consultation.
Findings
While social inclusion in sports has increasingly been recognized, research has predominantly focused on gender and religious minorities and persons with disabilities, with less attention to the elderly, who face age-based discrimination. Existing studies often emphasize individual participation, neglecting organizational and societal determinants from a sociological perspective. This study identified multilevel factors affecting elderly social inclusion in physical activity. At the micro-level, factors include psychological characteristics, well-being, intergenerational relationships, personal conditions, and communication skills. Meso-level (organizational) factors involve leadership qualities of sports coaches, educational activities, environmental conditions, and characteristics of sports organization managers. Macro-level factors encompass social characteristics, pressures for deinstitutionalization, and legal frameworks. These factors collectively create conditions conducive to elderly social inclusion in physical activity. However, social inclusion requires comprehensive social development at the community level, which includes social support, justice, security, and welfare.
 
Conclusion
The social inclusion of the elderly in physical activity is influenced by a complex interplay of micro, meso, and macro-level factors. Furthermore, broad social development within communities significantly shapes these dynamics, ultimately facilitating elderly inclusion. These insights can guide relevant organizations-such as the Ministry of Sports and Youth, provincial administrations, sports federations, and municipalities-in designing effective policies and programs to promote elderly participation in physical activity, thereby advancing social justice in Iran

Keywords

Ageism
Aging
Social Development
Multimethod
Physical Activity

Main Subjects

  1. Ayalon, L., & Tesch-Römer, C. (Eds.) (2018). Contemporary perspectives on Ageism. In International perspectives on aging. Cham: Springer.
  2. Beard, J. R., Officer, A. M., & Cassels, A. K. (2016). The world report on ageing and health. The Gerontologist, 56(Suppl. 2), S163–S166.
  3. Beyer, A.K., Wiest, M., & Wurm, S. (2019). There is still time to be active: self-perceptions of aging, physical activity, and the role of perceived residual lifetime among older adults. Journal of Aging Physical Activity, 27(4), 807–815.
  4. Breda, A. I., & Watts, A. S. (2017). Expectations regarding aging, physical activity, and physical function in older adults. Gerontology & Geriatric Medicine, 3, 1–8.
  5. Butler, R. N. (1969). Age-ism: Another form of bigotry. The Gerontologist, 9(4), 243–246.
  6. Chelladurai, P. (2014). Managing organizations for sport and physical activity: A systems perspective (4th). New York, NY: Routledge. (Chapter3)
  7. Cordier, R., B. Milbourn, R., Martin, A., Buchanan, D., Chung, R. S. (2017). A systematic review evaluating the psychometric properties of measures of social inclusion. PLoS ONE, 12(6), e0179109.
  8. Cumming, E., & Henry, W. E. (1961). Growing old. New York, NY: Basic
  9. Cunningham, G.B. (2019). Diversity and inclusion in sport organizations: A multilevel perspective (4th). London: Routledge.
  10. Dacin, M. T., Goodstein, J., & Scott, W. R. (2002). Institutional theory and institutional change: Introduction to the special research forum. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 45–57.
  11. Devereux-Fitzgerald, A., Powell, R., Dewhurst, A., & French, D. P. (2016). The acceptability of physical activity interventions to older adults: A systematic review and meta-synthesis. Social Science & Medicine, 158, 14_23.
  12. Dixon, M., & Bruening, J. (2007). Work–family conflict in coaching I: A top-down perspective. Journal of Sport Management, 21(3), 377–406.
  13. Essén, A., & Sauder, M. (2017). The evolution of weak standards: The case of the Swedish rheumatology quality registry. Sociology of Health and Illness, 39(4), 513–531.
  14. Fougner, M., Bergland, A., Lund, A., & Debesay, J. (2019). Aging and exercise: Perceptions of the active lived-body. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice, 1, 1–12.
  15. Frederiksen, M., Gundelach, P., & Nielsen, R. S. (2014). Mixed method-forskning: principper og praksis. Copenhagen: Hans Reitzels Publishers.
  16. Gard, M., Dionigi, R. A., Horton, S., Baker, J., Weir, P., & Dionigi, C. (2017). The normalization of sport for older people? Annals of Leisure Research, 20, 253-272.
  17. Gholi Poor, M., & Keshkar, S. (2021). An educational program pattern in sports to achieve gender equality and violence prevention against women. Sport Management Studies, 13(68), 1-29. (Persian)
  18. Golant, S. M. (2015). Residential normalcy and the enriched coping repertoires of successfully aging older adults. The Gerontologist, 55, 70–82.
  19. Hicks, S. A., & Siedlecki, K. L. (2017). Leisure activity engagement and positive affect partially mediate the relationship between positive views on aging and physical health. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 72, 259–267.
  20. Hu, R.X., Luo, M., Zhang, A., Li, L.W. (2021). Associations of ageism and health: A systematic review of quantitative observational studies. Research Aging, 43, 311–322.
  21. Imna News Agency. (2021). The growth of the elderly population in the next three decades. Retrieved from /www.imna.ir/news/539227. (Persian)
  22. Iversen, T. N., Larsen, L., & Solem, P. E. (2009). A conceptual analysis of ageism. Nordic Psychology, 61(3), 1-20.
  23. Jokar, F., Asadollahi, A. R., Kaveh, M. H., Ghahramani, L., & Nazari, M. (2020). Relationship of perceived social support with the activities of daily living in older adults living in rural communities in Iran. Salmand: Iranian Journal of Ageing, 15(3), 350-365. (Persian)
  24. Justesen, L., & Mik-Meyer, N. (2012). Qualitative Research Methods in Organisation Studies. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.
  25. Katz, S., & Calasanti, T. (2015). Critical perspectives on successful aging: does it ‘appeal more than it illuminates’? The Gerontologist, 55, 26–33.
  26. Khushfar, G. R., Mohammadi, A., Mohammadzadeh, F., Mohammadi, R., & Akbarzade, F. (2016). Social security and social health (Case study of youth in Ghaen city). Journal of Iranian Social Studies, 9(1), 71-102. (Persian)
  27. Kim, A. C. H., Park, S. H., Kim, S., & Fontes-Comber, A. (2020). Psychological and social outcomes of sport participation for older adults: a systematic review. Ageing & Society, 40, 1529–1549.
  28. Kim, S. H. (2009). Older people’s expectations regarding ageing, health-promoting behaviour and health status. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65, 84–91.
  29. King, E.B., & Cortina, J.M. (2010). The social and economic imperative of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered supportive organizational policies. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 3, 69–78.
  30. Kusumastuti, S., Derks, M. G. M., Tellier, S., Di Nucci, E., Lund, R., Mortensen, E. L., & Westendorp, R. G. J. (2016). Successful ageing: A study of the literature using citation network analysis. Maturitas, 93, 4–12.
  31. Leemann, L., Martelin, T., Koskinen, S., Härkänen, T., & Isola, A. M. (2021). Development and psychometric evaluation of the experiences of social inclusion scale. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 2021, 1–25.
  32. Levy, B. R., Pilver, C., Chung, P. H., & Slade, M. D. (2014). Subliminal strengthening: Improving older individuals' physical function over time with an implicit-age-stereotype intervention. Psychological Science, 25(12), 2127–2135.
  33. Marivoet, S. (2014). Challenge of sport towards social inclusion and awareness-raising against any discrimination. Physical Culture and Sport, 63(1), 3–11.
  34. Martin, P., Kelly, N., Kahana, B., Kahana, E., Willcox, B. J., Willcox, D. C., & Poon, L. W. (2015). Defining successful aging: A tangible or elusive concept? The Gerontologist, 55(1), 14–25.
  35. Masi, C. M., Chen, H. Y., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2011). A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(3), 219–266.
  36. Meisner, B. A., Weir, P. A., & Baker, J. (2013). The relationships between aging expectations and various modes of physical activity among aging adults. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 14, 569–576.
  37. Melton, E. N., & Cunningham, G. B. (2014). Who are the champions? Using a multilevel model to examine perceptions of employee support for LGBT inclusion in sport organizations. Journal of Sport Management, 28(2), 189–206.
  38. Menkin, J. A., Smith, J. L., & Bihary, J. G. (2020). Brief anti-ageism messaging effects on physical activity motivation among older adults. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 1, 1_8.
  39. Michel, J. P., & Sadana, R. (2017). “Healthy aging” concepts and measures. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 18(6), 460–464.
  40. Mik-Meyer, N. (2020). Multimethod qualitative research. In D. Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative research. New York: Sage.
  41. Montazerolmahdi, S. (2015). Impact of acquiring provocation control skills on mitigating anger, mental security, conjugal satisfaction and young couples, esprit. Social Security Studies, 2(43), 21-36. (Persian)
  42. Naegele, L., De Tavernier, W., & Hess, M. (2018). Work environment and the origin of ageism. In L. Ayalon & C. Tesch-Römer (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives on ageism: (Vol. 19). International perspectives on aging (pp. 73–90). Berlin: Springer.
  43. Nite, C., & Edwards, J. (2021). From isomorphism to institutional work: advancing institutional theory in sport management research. Sport Management Review, (aop), 1-24.
  44. Oliver, C. (1992). The antecedents of deinstitutionalization. Organization Studies, 13, 563–588.
  45. Pettigrew, S., Jongenelis, M. I., Rai, R., Jackson, B., & Newton, R. U. (2021). Communicating with older people about physical activity. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 45(6), 587-591.
  46. Rejeski, W. J., & Mihalko, S.L. (2001). Physical activity and quality of life in older adults. The journals of gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 56(11), 23-35.
  47. Riva, P., & Eck, J. (2016). Social exclusion: Psychological approaches to understanding and reducing its impact. Cham: Springer
  48. Robin, L. M., Hill, K. D., Finch, C. F., Clemson, L., & Haines, T. (2016). The association between physical activity and social isolation in community-dwelling older adults. Aging and Mental Health. Advance, 22(2), 275-182.
  49. Rubinstein, R. L., & de Medeiros, K. (2015). ‘Successful aging,’ gerontological theory and neoliberalism: A qualitative critique. The Gerontologist, 55, 34–42.
  50. Saffari, M., & Qarra, M. A. (2017). Factors inhibiting the participation of the elderly in sports and active recreation. Journal of Sport Management and Motor Behavior, 13(26), 129-140. (Persian)
  51. Sargent-Cox, K. A., Anstey, K. J., & Luszcz, M. A. (2012). the relationship between change in self-perceptions of aging and physical functioning in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 27, 750–760.
  52. Schaillée, H., Haudenhuyse, R., & Bradt, L. (2019). Community sport and social inclusion: International perspectives. Sport in Society, doi: 10.1080/17430437.2019.1565380
  53. Scott, W. R. (2008). Institutions and organizations: Ideas and interests (3rd). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
  54. Shore, L. M., Randel, A. E., Chung, B. G., Dean, M. A., Ehrhart, K. H., & Singh, G. (2011). Inclusion and diversity in work groups: A review and model for future research. Journal of Management, 37, 1262–1289.
  55. Silverman, D. (2020). Interpreting qualitative data (6th). London: Sage.
  56. Soares-Miranda, L., Siscovick, D. S., Psaty, B. M., Longstreth, W. T., & Mozaffarian, D. (2016). Physical activity and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in older adults: The cardiovascular heart study. Circulation, 133, 147-155.
  57. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  58. Swift, H. J., Abrams, D., Lamont, R. A., & Drury, L. (2017). The risks of ageism model: how ageism and negative attitudes toward age can be a barrier to active aging. Social Issues and Policy Review, 11(1), 195–231.
  59. Tierney, W. G., Sabharwal, N. S., & Malish, C. M. (2019). Inequitable structures: Class and caste in Indian higher education. Qualitative Inquiry, 25(5), 471–481.
  60. Tornstam, L. (2005). Gerotranscendence: A developmental theory of positive aging. New York, NY: Springer.
  61. Trussell, D. E., Kovac, L., & Apgar, J. (2018). LGBTQ parents’ experiences of community youth sport: Change your forms, change your (hetero) norms. Sport Management Review, 21(1), 51–62.
  62. Van Uffelen, J., Jenkin, Westerbeek, H., Biddle, S., & Eime, R. (2015). Active and healthy ageing through sport. Report Prepared for the Australian Sports Commission. Victoria University, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL).
  63. (2015). World report on ageing and health. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/186463/9789240694811_eng.pdf?sequence=1.
  64. Yazdani, F. (2003). Basic concepts in social welfare issues (Social policy, social support, social security). Social Welfare Quarterly, 3(10), 31-54. (Persian)
  65. Zajko, C. W. (2009). Successful aging: The role of physical activity. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 3(1), 20-28.
Sport Management Studies
Volume 16, Issue 87
May and June 2024
Pages 127-150

  • Receive Date 16 March 2023
  • Revise Date 21 August 2023
  • Accept Date 22 January 2024

Home

Publication Ethics

Submit Manuscript

News

Journal Metrics

Contact Us